Prior announced following Monday's 95-run second test loss at Lord's that he was withdrawing from the England squad for the final three matches of the series having been hampered by poor form and injury.
Buttler, 23, has played 33 one-day internationals and 36 Twenty20 matches for England.
"Congratulations to Jos Buttler who comes into the squad following some very exciting limited overs performances for England and a good record with Lancashire this season and fully deserves this opportunity," national selector James Whitaker said in a statement on Tuesday.
"Matt Prior has contributed a huge amount to the England side over the years and should be proud of his record throughout his 79 tests. He has decided to take time out of the game to work on his fitness and we will continue to follow his progress over the coming months."
England have also left spinner Simon Kerrigan out of the squad, having been called up for the Lord's test.
The side has come in for increasing criticism, having gone 10 tests without a win and failing to take advantage of a green pitch at Lord's that appeared suited to their four-strong seam attack.
"The result of the second test at Lord's was very disappointing," Whitaker added.
"One or two of our players had encouraging performances however it is vital that the squad learns quickly and arrives in Southampton this week refreshed and ready to perform well in what will no doubt be another tough test match."
Squad:
Alastair Cook (captain), Moeen Ali, James Anderson, Gary Ballance, Ian Bell, Stuart Broad, Jos Buttler, Chris Jordan,
Liam Plunkett, Sam Robson, Joe Root, Ben Stokes, Chris Woakes
(Reporting by Josh Reich; Editing by Ed Osmond)
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